At CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC), lead nuclei are accelerated in opposite directions and smashed together at nearly the speed of light. These high-energy collisions trigger interactions between the quarks and gluons within the nuclei, leading to the creation of a vastly larger number of particles—roughly one hundred times more than were present initially. These processes are governed by the strong nuclear force.

Due to the extreme density and intensity of interactions among the resulting 30,000 particles, individual identities are effectively lost. Instead, the system behaves like a fluid—a femtoscale droplet just 10⁻¹⁴ meters in size—with properties such as temperature and velocity defining its overall behavior.

This fluid-like state, known as the quark-gluon plasma, simplifies the complex particle environment into a more tractable description. The temperature of this plasma reaches an astonishing 2.5 trillion degrees Celsius, and its collective motion can be described using hydrodynamic models.

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In 2024, researchers at the Institut de Physique Théorique of CEA Paris-Saclay introduced a novel approach to probing the collective nature of this particle fluid. The method capitalizes on tiny temperature fluctuations—about one percent—occurring between individual collisions. Although each collision features a uniform temperature, the value itself can vary slightly from one event to another.

This subtle variability leads to measurable correlations in the temperatures of particles emitted at different angles. In other words, even when particles are detected in vastly different directions, they appear to originate from a fluid with the same thermal conditions. The ATLAS experiment, with its comprehensive angular detection capability, confirmed this correlation is consistent regardless of the relative emission angles, supporting the model of a uniform-temperature source.

Further analysis examined how small increases in temperature affected the distribution of particle momenta. Predictably, a slightly hotter fluid emits fewer slow-moving particles and more high-momentum ones. These observations match hydrodynamic simulations, with the exception of a small population of very fast particles. These are likely produced in the earliest instants after the collision, before the full fluid state has time to form.

The new method has been successfully implemented by both the ATLAS and ALICE collaborations. Their findings were presented at Quark Matter 2025, a leading international conference held in Frankfurt, and are now available on the arXiv preprint server. These results provide compelling evidence of collective fluid behavior and deepen our understanding of matter under the most extreme conditions known in the universe.